Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

From Happiness to Flourishing at Work: A Southern African Perspective

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Well-Being Research in South Africa

Part of the book series: Cross-Cultural Advancements in Positive Psychology ((CAPP,volume 4))

Abstract

Organizations around the world recognize the importance of measuring subjective well-being and promoting it as part of a strategic approach to human resource management. The focus is increasingly shifting to multidimensional indicators of employee happiness in the work context. The concept flourishing incorporates two dimensions of happiness; namely, feeling good and functioning well. This study aims to identify dimensions of employee flourishing, and to investigate the antecedents and outcomes thereof in the southern African work and organizational context. The findings of various studies were reviewed, and data gathered from a sample of managers in South Africa (N = 505) was used to explore the dimensions, antecedents, and outcomes of flourishing. The results showed that flourishing individuals feel good (i.e., are satisfied with their jobs and experience positive emotions at work), function psychologically well (i.e., are energetic, dedicated, self-determined, find meaning and purpose at work, and experience harmony), and function socially well (in terms of social acceptance, social growth, social contribution, social coherence, and social integration). It was found that flourishing in work and organizational contexts, and flourishing in everyday life, shared 54 % of the variance. However, flourishing in work and organizational contexts was better predicted by job contextual factors, and it also predicted organizational outcomes better than did flourishing in general.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Antonovsky, A. (1991). The structural sources of salutogenic strengths. In C. L. Cooper & R. Payne (Eds.), Personality and stress: Individual differences in the stress process (pp. 67–104). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, M. (2006). Strategic human resources management: A guide to action (3rd ed.). London: Kogan Page.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakker, A. B., & Oerlemans, G. M. (2012). Subjective well-being in organizations. In K. S. Cameron & G. M. Spreitzer (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive organizational scholarship (pp. 178–189). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakker, A. B., Schaufeli, W. B., Leiter, M. P., & Taris, T. W. (2008). Work engagement: An emerging concept in occupational health psychology. Work and Stress, 22, 187–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blau, P. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boehm, J. K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Does happiness promote career success? Journal of Career Assessment, 16(1), 101–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bono, J. E., Davies, S. E., & Rasch, R. L. (2012). Some traits associated with flourishing at work. In K. Cameron & G. M. Spreitzer (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive organizational scholarship (pp. 125–137). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bosman, J., Buitendach, J. H., & Rothmann, S. (2005). Job insecurity, burnout and work engagement: The impact of positive and negative affectivity. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 31(4), 48–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cameron, K., & Spreitzer, G. M. (2012). What is positive about positive organizational scholarship? In K. Cameron & G. M. Spreitzer (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive organizational scholarship (pp. 1–16). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2002). Optimism. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 231–243). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coetzee, S., & Viviers, A. M. (2007). An overview of research on positive psychology in South Africa. South African Journal of Psychology, 37, 470–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Hedoinia, eudamonia, and well-being: An introduction. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2011). Levels of analysis: Regnant causes of behavior and well-being: The role of psychological needs. Psychological Inquiry, 22, 17–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delle Fave, A., Brdar, I., Freire, T., Vella-Brodrick, D., & Wissing, M. P. (2011). The eudaimonic and hedonic components of happiness: Qualitative and quantitative findings. Social Indicators Research, 100, 185–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands – Resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 499–512.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diedericks, E. (2012). Flourishing of employees in the information technology industry in South Africa. Unpublished doctoral thesis, North-West University, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Kesebir, P., & Lucas, R. (2008). Benefits of accounts of well-being – For societies and for psychological science. Applied Psychology: An International Journal, 57, 37–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 276–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donaldson, S. I., & Ko, I. (2010). Positive organizational psychology, behavior, and scholarship: A review of emerging literature and the evidenc e base. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 177–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dutton, J., & Ragins, B. R. (2007). Exploring positive relationships at work: Building a theoretical and research foundation. New York: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edmondson, A. (2004). Psychological safety and learning behaviour in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 350–383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, C. D. (2010). Happiness at work. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12, 384–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frankl, V. E. (1992). Man’s search for meaning (4th ed.). Boston: Beacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2, 300–319.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (2006). Unpacking positive emotions: Investigating the seeds of positive emotions. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 57–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 331–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1980). Work redesign. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamukangandu, L. M. (2012). Meaning of work and work engagement among educators of Zambia. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44, 513–524.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hobfoll, S. E. (2001). The influence of culture, community and the nested-self in the stress process: Advancing conservation of resources theory. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50, 337–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holbeche, L., & Springett, N. (2004). In search of meaning in the workplace. West-Sussex, UK: Roffey Park Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huppert, F. A., & So, T. T. C. (2011). Flourishing across Europe: Application of a new conceptual framework for defining well-being. Social Indicators Research. doi:10.1007/s11205-0119966-7.

  • Ilies, R., & Judge, T. A. (2004). An experience-sampling measure of job satisfaction and its relationship with affectivity, mood at work, job beliefs and general job satisfaction. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 13, 367–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janik, M., & Rothmann, S. (in press). Antecedents and outcomes of work engagement of Namibian secondary school teachers. Manuscript submitted for publication.

    Google Scholar 

  • Judge, T. A., Piccolo, R. F., Podsakoff, N. P., Shaw, J. C., & Rich, B. L. (2010). The relationship between pay and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77, 157–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33, 692–724.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job design. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 285–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kashdan, T. B., & Steger, M. F. (2011). Challenges, pitfalls, and aspirations for positive psychology. In K. M. Sheldon, T. B. Kashdan, & M. F. Steger (Eds.), Designing positive psychology: Taking stock and moving forward (pp. 9–24). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M. (2000). Subjective change and its consequences for well-being. Motivation and Emotion, 24, 67–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M. (2005). Mental illness and/or mental health? Investigating the axioms of the complete state model of health. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 539–548.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M. (2007). Promoting and protecting mental health as flourishing: A complementary strategy for improving national mental health. American Psychologist, 62, 95–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M. (2009). The black-white paradox in health: Flourishing in the face of social inequality and discrimination. Journal of Personality, 77, 1677–1705.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M., & Annas, J. (2009). Feeling good and functioning well: distinctive concepts in ancient philosophy and contemporary science. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 197–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M., Satvinder, S., Dhingra, M. P. H., & Simoes, E. J. (2010). Change in level of positive mental health as a predictor of future risk of mental illness. American Journal of Public Health, 100, 2366–2371.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 1007–1022.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M., Wissing, M., Potgieter, J. P., Temane, M., Kruger, A., & van Rooy, S. (2008). Evaluation of the Mental Health Continuum–Short Form (MHC–SF) in Setswana-Speaking South Africans. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 15, 181–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linley, P. A., Garcea, N., Harrington, S., Trenier, E., & Minhas, G. (2011). Organizational applications of positive psychology: Taking stock and a research/practice roadmap for the future. In K. M. Sheldon, T. B. Kashdan, & M. F. Steger (Eds.), Designing positive psychology: Taking stock and moving forward (pp. 365–384). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Locke, E. A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M. D. Dunette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 1297–1343). Chicago: Rand McNally.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, R. E., Diener, E., & Suh, E. (1996). Discriminant validity of well-being measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 626–628.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luthans, F. (2002). The need for and meaning of positive organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 695–706.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Macey, W. H., & Schneider, B. (2008). The meaning of employee engagement. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1, 3–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matuska, K. M., & Christiansen, C. H. (2008). A proposed model of lifestyle balance. Journal of Occupational Science, 15(1), 9–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • May, D. R., Gilson, R. L., & Harter, L. M. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77, 11–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mbiti, J. S. (1970). Concepts of God in Africa. London: SPCK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendes, F., & Stander, M. W. (2011). Positive organisation: The role of leader behaviour in employee engagement and turnover intention. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 37(1), doi:10.4102/sajip.v37i1.900.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Møller, V. (2007). Satisfied and dissatisfied South Africans: Results from the general household survey in international comparison. Social Indicators Research, 81, 389–415.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moneta, G. B., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). The effect of perceived challenges and skills on the quality of subjective experience. Journal of Personality, 64, 275–310.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naudé, J. L. P., & Rothmann, S. (2006). Work-related well-being of emergency workers in South Africa. South African Journal of Psychology, 36(1), 63–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nel, A., Valchev, V. H., Rothmann, S., Van de Vijver, F. J. R., Meiring, D., & De Bruin, G. P. (2011). Exploring the personality structure in the 11 languages of South Africa. Journal of Personality, 80(4), 915–948.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, N., Peterson, C., & Ruch, W. (2009). Orientations to happiness and life satisfaction in twenty-seven nations. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 273–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2008). The satisfaction with life scale and the emerging construct of life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 137–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C., Park, N., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Orientations to happiness and life satisfaction: The full life versus the empty life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6, 25–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Porath, C., Spreitzer, G., Gibson, C., & Garnett, F. G. (2012). Thriving at work: Toward its measurement, construct validation, and theoretical refinement. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33, 250–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pratt, M. G., & Ashforth, B. E. (2003). Fostering positive meaning at work. In K. S. Cameron, J. E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline (pp. 309–327). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothbard, N. P., & Patil, S. V. (2012). Being there: Work engagement and positive organizational scholarship. In K. S. Cameron & G. M. Spreitzer (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive organizational scholarship (pp. 56–68). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothmann, S. (2008). Occupational stress, job satisfaction, burnout and work engagement as components of work-related well-being. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 34(3), 11–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothmann, S., & Rothmann, S., Jr. (2010). Factors related to employee engagement in South African organisations. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36(2), 1–11. doi:10.4102/sajip.v37i1.895.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothmann, S., & Welsh, C. (2013). Employee engagement in Namibia: The role of ­psychological conditions. Management Dynamics , 22(1).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rousseau, D. M. (1989). Psychological and implicit contracts in organizations. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 2, 121–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rousseau, D. M. (1990). New hire perceptions of their own and their employer’s obligations: A study of psychological contacts. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11, 389–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., Huta, V., & Deci, E. L. (2008). Living well: A self-determination theory perspective on eudaimonia. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 139–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. H. (1998). The contours of positive human health. Psychological Inquiry, 9, 1–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job resources and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25, 293–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seeman, M. (1972). Alienation and engagement. In A. Campbell & P. E. Converce (Eds.), The human meaning of social change (pp. 467–527). New York: Russell Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (2003). Authentic happiness. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (2008). Positive health. Applied Psychology: An International Journal, 57, 3–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A new understanding of happiness and well-being – And how to achieve them. London: Nicolas Brealey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 1–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shamir, B. (1991). Meaning, self and motivation in organizations. Organization Studies, 12, 405–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shore, L. M., Coyle-Shapiro, J. A., Chen, X., & Tetrick, L. E. (2009). Social exchange in work settings: Content, process, and mixed models. Management and Organization Review, 5, 289–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simon, L. S., Judge, T. A., & Halvorsen-Ganepola, M. D. K. (2010). In good company: A multi-­study, multi-level investigation of the effects of coworker relationships on employee well-­being. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76, 534–546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sirgy, M. J., & Wu, J. (2009). The pleasant life, the engaged life and the meaningful life: What about the balanced life? Journal of Happiness Studies, 10, 183–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. C., Kendall, L. M., & Hulin, C. L. (1969). The measurement of satisfaction in work and retirement. Chicago: Rand McNally.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spector, P. E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes, and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spreitzer, G. M. (1995). Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 1442–1465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spreitzer, G. M., Lam, C. F., & Fritz, C. (2010). Engagement and human thriving: Complimentary perspectives on energy and connections to work. In A. B. Bakker & M. P. Leiter (Eds.), Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research (pp. 132–146). New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stairs, M., & Galpin, M. (2010). Positive engagement: From employee engagement to workplace happiness. In P. A. Linley, S. Harrington, & N. Garcea (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work (pp. 143–154). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steger, M. F. (2009). Meaning in life. In S. J. Lopez (Ed.), Handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steger, M. F., & Dik, B. J. (2010). Work as meaning. In P. A. Linley, S. Harrington, & N. Page (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology and work (pp. 131–142). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strümpfer, D. J. W., Hardy, A., De Villiers, J. S., & Rigby, S. (2009). Organisationally relevant variables and Keyes’ mental health continuum scale. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 35, 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swart, J. P. (2012). Antecedents and outcomes of happiness of managers in the agricultural sector in South Africa. Unpublished doctoral thesis, North-West University, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, K. W., & Velthouse, B. A. (1990). Cognitive elements of empowerment: An “interpretive” model of intrinsic task motivation. Academy of Management Review, 15, 666–681.

    Google Scholar 

  • Veenhoven, R. (2011). Greater happiness for a greater number: Is that possible? If so, how? In K. M. Sheldon, T. B. Kashdan, & M. F. Steger (Eds.), Designing positive psychology: Taking stock and moving forward (pp. 396–409). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Vella-Brodrick, D. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2009). Three ways to be happy: Pleasure, engagement, and meaning – Findings from Australian and US samples. Social Indicators Research, 90, 165–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Viviers, A. M., & Coetzee, S. (2007). South African universities, research and positive psychology. South African Journal of Psychology, 21, 764–780.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warr, P. B. (1987). Work, unemployment and mental health. Oxford, UK: Clarendon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waterman, A. S. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: A eudaimonist’s perspective. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 234–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, H. M., & Cropanzano, R. (1996). Affective events theory: A theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 1–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wrzesniewski, A., McCauley, C., Rozin, P., & Schwartz, B. (1997). Jobs, careers and callings: People’s relations to their work. Journal of Research in Personality, 31, 21–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wrzesniewski, A., & Tosti, J. (2005). Career as a calling. In J. H. Greenhaus & G. A. Callanan (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of career development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zelenski, J. M., Murphy, S. A., & Jenkins, D. A. (2008). The happy-productive worker thesis revisited. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 521–537.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Optentia Reseach Focus Area, North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa

    Sebastiaan Rothmann

Authors
  1. Sebastiaan Rothmann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sebastiaan Rothmann .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. The Africa Unit for Transdis. Health, Research, North-West University:, School of Psychosoc. Behav. Scs. and, Potchefstroom Campus, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa

    Marié P. Wissing

Additional information

Note

All scales used in the canonical analyses in this chapter were valid and reliable (see Swart, 2012)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Rothmann, S. (2013). From Happiness to Flourishing at Work: A Southern African Perspective. In: Wissing, M. (eds) Well-Being Research in South Africa. Cross-Cultural Advancements in Positive Psychology, vol 4. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6368-5_7

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation